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A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around opposing conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what extent gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. Various groups have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate, most notably the feminist movement. The term 'gender role' was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists. ==Background== The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender roles as "socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women". However debate continues as to what extent gender and its roles are socially constructed (i.e. non-biologically influenced), and to what extent "socially constructed" may be considered synonymous with "arbitrary" or "malleable".〔The social construction of race. The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/05/the-social-construction-of-race/275974/〕〔Henry, S. (2009) Social construction of crime. In J. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century criminology: A reference handbook. (pp. 296-306). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412971997.n34〕〔Hacking, I (1999) The social construction of what?. Harvard University Press.〕〔http://www.aifs.gov.au/conferences/aifs7/francis.html〕〔Francis, B. (2000) Is gender a social construct or a biological imperative? Family Futures : Issues in Research and Policy 7th Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference http://www.aifs.gov.au/conferences/aifs7/francis.html〕 Therefore, a concise authoritative definition of gender roles or gender itself is elusive. Some systems of classification, unlike the WHO, are non-binary or gender queer, listing multiple possible genders including transgender and intersex as distinct categories.〔Federation of Gay Games 2010 Gay Games VIII Gender Identity Policy http://www.transgenderlaw.org/resources/FederationGayGamesPolicy.pdf〕〔Sykes, H. (2006) Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sports WSPAJ Vol. 15, No. 1〕 Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two (boy and girl or man and woman), others recognize more. Androgyny, for example, has been proposed as a third gender. Other societies have claimed to see more than five genders,〔Graham, Sharyn (2001), (Sulawesi's fifth gender ), Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001.〕 and some non-Western societies have three genders – man, woman and third gender.〔Roscoe, Will (2000). ''Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America''. Palgrave Macmillan (June 17, 2000) ISBN 0-312-22479-6 See also: Trumbach, Randolph (1994). ''London’s Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture.'' In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). ISBN 978-0-942299-82-3〕 Some individuals identify with no gender at all.〔"LGBTQ Needs Assessment" (PDF). Encompass Network. April 2013. pp. 52–53. Retrieved 06 March 2015. http://encompassnetwork.org.uk/uploads/LGBTQ-Needs-Assesmentabsolutelyfinal.pdf〕 Gender role, referring in some sense to cultural expectations according to an understood gender classification, should not be confused with gender identity, the internal sense of one's own gender, which may or may not align with categories offered by societal norms. The point at which these internalized gender identities become externalized into a set of expectations is the genesis of a gender role.〔Adler, P.; Kless, S.; Adler, P (1992)Socialization to gender roles: Popularity among elementary school boys and girls. Sociology of education vol. 65 pp. 169-087〕〔Acker, J (1992) From sex roles to gendered institutions. Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews vol. 21 no. 565-569〕 Gender roles are usually referenced in a pejorative sense, as an institution that restricts freedom of behavior and expression, or are used as a basis for discrimination. Due to the prevailing gender role of general subordination, women were not granted the right to vote in many parts of the world until the 19th or 20th centuries, some well into the 21st.〔("In Saudi Arabia, a Quiet Step Forward for Women" ). The Atlantic. Oct 26 2011〕 Women throughout the world, in myriad respects, do not enjoy full freedom and protection under the law (see Women's rights). Due to the prevailing perception of men as primarily breadwinners, they are seldom afforded the benefit of paternity leave. Gender roles may also be experienced negatively by those who are, or are perceived to be members of a group, but who do not conform to established norms. For example, Morgan examines the plight of homosexuals seeking political asylum from homophobic persecution who have been turned away by US customs for not being "gay enough", that is, not sufficiently conforming to the standard western conception of the gender roles occupied by gays and lesbians.〔Morgan, D. (2006) Not gay enough for the government: Racial and sexual stereotypes in sexual orientation asylum cases. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/lsex15&div=9&g_sent=1&collection=journals#141〕 Mohammad, a gay man from Iran, was asked by his immigration officer "how she was supposed to believe he was gay when he was 'not feminine in any way'". His application was initially denied but later granted on appeal. Conversely, heterosexual men and women who are not sufficiently masculine or feminine may be persecuted for being homosexual. Despite this, and for at least some individuals, gender roles may provide a positive effect and the absence of them may prove difficult. Whilst gender roles may be used as deleterious gender stereotypes, they can offer a clear avenue to verify and structure socially accepted behavior. Additionally, holding the view of one's self as fulfilling prescribed gender roles has been correlated with increased self-esteem.〔Frome, P. & Eccles (1996) Gender roles identity and self-esteem. Poster presented at the biannual meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence.〕 As Kelsey, who self identifies as gender neutral phrased it: "It just makes me feel separated from society, when we have to keep talking about it. It’s like — am I even human?...I mean, I know I’m not normal."〔The Washington Post. When no gender fits: A quest to be seen as just a person. http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/when-no-gender-fits-a-quest-to-be-seen-as-just-a-person/2014/09/20/1ab21e6e-2c7b-11e4-994d-202962a9150c_story.html〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Gender role」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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